tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-59835392932885831542024-03-13T15:46:08.939-07:00Legal ResearchStamihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03594676746991523105noreply@blogger.comBlogger13125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5983539293288583154.post-70881877663901320422010-11-04T05:15:00.000-07:002010-11-07T07:14:09.266-08:00<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">‘Football hooliganism’</span></b></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TNKjcLt_0NI/AAAAAAAAACc/7ReALcyc4qc/s1600/bfbrgr.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="245" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TNKjcLt_0NI/AAAAAAAAACc/7ReALcyc4qc/s320/bfbrgr.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;"><br />
</span></b><b><span style="line-height: 115%;"></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Couple of days ago, I witnessed the aftermath of the football match between Sunderland and Newcastle. It was a chaotic situation, with people yelling and breaking bottles and being aggressive. Police was trying to ease the situation and it finally did. While I was staring, I was wondering which laws prevent such incidents from occurring. I will share with you some of my findings. First and foremost, a major wagon used is the <a href="http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/crime-victims/reducing-crime/football-disorder/index.html">banning orders</a>. </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1986/64">Section 30 of the Public Order Act 1986 </a>provided powers to control the movement of ‘hooligans’, by serving with ‘exclusion orders’ those convicted of ‘football-related’ offences. Consequently, </span><span style="line-height: 115%;">it became a criminal offence to attend ‘designated football matches’ during the currency of the Order. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 115%;">These orders were seen as a successful weapon in the dismantling of several prominent ‘firms’. The <a href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1989/37/contents">Football Spectators Act 1989 (Part 2, S.15)</a> extended these powers by allowing for the imposition of ‘restriction orders’ following conviction for football-related offences to prevent the defendant from leaving the UK when English teams were playing abroad<span style="color: #141413;">.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #141413; line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></span></span></a> Moreover, the <a href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2000/25/contents">Football (Disorder) Act 2000</a> (which amended the Football (Offences and Disorder) Act 1999) was introduced as the aforementioned Acts were not sufficient to grant a restriction order in the absence of a conviction. The 2000 Act allowed ‘banning orders’ to be granted where the courts were satisfied that the order would help to prevent violence or disorder in connection with regulated matches. A Banning Order can now be granted against persons who are convicted with relevant offences (s.14A) and also can be made ‘on complaint’ of a chief officer of police against a person who had </span></span><span style="line-height: 115%;">‘at any time caused or contributed to any violence or disorder in the United Kingdom or elsewhere’ (s.14B). Persons subject to an order were not allowed to attend domestic football games and they also had to report to a police station at the time the matches were playing abroad. In addition, they had to surrender their passports.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[2]</span></span></span></a> The banning orders, especially the 2000 Act, succeeded to reduce dramatically the incidents of hooliganism during the last years.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[3]</span></span></span></a></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></span></span> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 115%;">The aforementioned laws are indeed harsh but at the same time effective. There are some concerns regarding proportionality and Human Rights (as fundamental rights are infringed, such as art. 5, 6, 8 and the free movement of persons) but this is a long discussion. Overall, I believe that the banning order might be an effective response to football hooliganism but as it happens with most, if not all, of the legislations BOs carry negative aspects. </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><br />
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 115%;">Further Reading:</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Beloff, M. J. (2006) ‘<i>Editorial</i>’ International Sports Law Review, I.S.L.R. 55</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">James, M. & Pearson, G. (2006) ‘</span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 115%;">Football Banning Orders: Analyzing their Use in Court’ </span></i><span style="line-height: 115%;">Journal of Criminal Law, JoCL 70 (509)</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Samuels, A. (2002) ‘<i>Football Hooliganism: Stopping it, and Punishing it’ </i>Justice of the Peace, (2002) 166 JPN 426</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Blackshaw, I. (2001) ‘<i>Football hooligans and human rights’ </i>New Law Journal, 151 NLJ 1562</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Thomas, D.A. (2008) ‘<i>Sentencing: Football Spectators Act 1989 - banning order made on conviction for offence</i>’ Criminal Law Review, Crim. L.R. 575</span><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><br />
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<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" /><div id="ftn1"><div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></span></span></a> <span lang="EN-US">Stott, C. & Pearson, G. (2006) ‘<i>Football Banning Orders, Proportionality, and Public Order Policing</i>’ The Howard Journal, Vol 45 No 3</span></span></div></div><div id="ftn2"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;"> Beloff, M. J. (2006) ‘<i>Editorial</i>’ International Sports Law Review, I.S.L.R. 55</span> </span></div></div><div id="ftn3"><div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[3]</span></span></span></a> <span lang="EN-US">Stott, C. & Pearson, G. (2006) ‘<i>Football Banning Orders, Proportionality, and Public Order Policing</i>’ The Howard Journal, Vol 45 No 3</span></span></div></div></div>Stamihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03594676746991523105noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5983539293288583154.post-90293521268947084862010-11-03T18:53:00.000-07:002010-11-03T18:54:48.962-07:00<!--[if !mso]> <style>
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">Postal Rule in English Contract Law</span></b></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TNIO3u6zPGI/AAAAAAAAACM/4OG7L4nE6j8/s1600/vfrv.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="166" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TNIO3u6zPGI/AAAAAAAAACM/4OG7L4nE6j8/s320/vfrv.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
</span></u></b><b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">Under English contract law, each <a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1444014243"><span id="goog_1444014231"></span></a><a href="http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/contract.html"><span id="goog_1444014237"></span>contract</a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1444014236"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"></span></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/"><span id="goog_1444014232"></span></a><span id="goog_1444014238"></span> requires an <a href="http://www.e-lawresources.co.uk/Offer-and-acceptance.php">offer and acceptance </a><a href="http://www.duhaime.org/LegalResources/Contracts/LawArticle-89/Part-4-Offer-Acceptance.aspx#acceptance"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"></span></a>of that offer<a href="http://www.duhaime.org/LegalDictionary/O/Offer.aspx"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"></span></a>. According to the case of <a href="http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWCA/Civ/1955/3.html">Entores v. Miles Far East Corp. [1955] 2 QB 327</a>, the acceptance must be communicated. However, the case of <a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1444014264"><span>Adams </span>v. </a><span><a href="http://www.worldlingo.com/ma/enwiki/en/Adams_v._Lindsell">Lindsell (1818) 1 B & Ald 681</a><i> </i>introduced an exception to the general rule which required the acceptance to be communicated in order to be valid. Since the Adams case, </span>if the post is the arranged (or proper) method to communicate acceptance, then the acceptance is deemed complete as soon as the letter of acceptance is posted. It should be noted that for a letter of acceptance to be valid it has to be posted, addressed and stamped properly.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a> The letter is regarded as posted only when it is in the possession of the post office<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_Office" title="Post Office"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"></span></a>.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TNIPFf5rzKI/AAAAAAAAACQ/u7a6ZBVla0Y/s1600/imageswdwe.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TNIPFf5rzKI/AAAAAAAAACQ/u7a6ZBVla0Y/s1600/imageswdwe.jpg" /></a></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;"><br />
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">The postal rule revealed implications in its function. For instance, it does not apply to instantaneous forms of communications; such as telex, telephone or fax.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">[3]</span></span></span></span></a> Moreover, under the postal rule if an offerree has posted his acceptance then he cannot revoke it by other means, such as telephone. Therefore, it is possible for a letter of acceptance to be posted after a letter of revocation of the offer has been posted but before it is delivered, and acceptance will be complete at the time that the letter of acceptance was posted. In such case the offeror's revocation would be out of action. Finally, given that the acceptance is complete once the letter of acceptance is posted, it makes no difference whether the offeror actually receives the letter.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span></span></span></a> If a letter of acceptance were to be lost or delayed in the post, acceptance has still taken place.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TNIPJjhQ5RI/AAAAAAAAACU/n-Hkk-yZ-jY/s1600/imagesdwde.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TNIPJjhQ5RI/AAAAAAAAACU/n-Hkk-yZ-jY/s1600/imagesdwde.jpg" /></a><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">In my opinion, two issues urgently arising for the above discussion concern the revocation and the time that the acceptance reaches the recipient (if it finally does). As regards to the former, it seems to me excessively restrictive not to be able to revoke the offer before the acceptance has reached the offerror. It is unfair, considering that under the general rule of contract, revocation of an offer can occur any time before the acceptance. Regarding the latter, I believe that having accepted an offer before the acceptance reaches the offerror must be very confusing in many cases. </span></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
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</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">Further reading:</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Poole, J. (2008) <i>Casebook on Contract Law </i>(9<sup>th</sup> edn) Oxford University Press, Oxford</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Turner, C. (2005) <i>Key Facts Contract Law </i>(2nd edn) Hodder Arnold, Abingdon</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Mckendrick, E. (2007)<i> Contract Law</i> (7<sup>th</sup> edn) Palgrave Mcmillan <br />
<br style="color: black;" /> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><a href="http://www.duhaime.org/LegalResources/Contracts/LawArticle-89/Part-4-Offer-Acceptance.aspx">http://www.duhaime.org/LegalResources/Contracts/LawArticle-89/Part-4-Offer-Acceptance.aspx</a></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posting_rule#English_case_law">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posting_rule#English_case_law</a></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><a href="http://www.suite101.com/content/the-postal-rule-in-english-contract-law-a219512">http://www.suite101.com/content/the-postal-rule-in-english-contract-law-a219512</a></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><a href="http://www.lawofcontract.co.uk/formation/postal-rule.php">http://www.lawofcontract.co.uk/formation/postal-rule.php</a></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><a href="http://www.duhaime.org/LegalResources/Contracts/LawArticle-89/Part-4-Offer-Acceptance.aspx">http://www.duhaime.org/LegalResources/Contracts/LawArticle-89/Part-4-Offer-Acceptance.aspx</a></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />
</div><div><span style="font-size: large;"><br clear="all" /></span> <hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" /><div id="ftn1"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a> <span>Re London and Northern Bank (1900)</span><span> </span>1 Ch 220;<span> Getreideimport GmbH v Contimar (1953)</span> 2 All ER 223, [<em><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif";">1953</span></em>] 1 WLR 793, [<em><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif";">1953</span></em>] 1 Lloyd's Rep 572.</span></div></div><div id="ftn2"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a> Re London & Northern Bank [1900] 1 Ch 220</span></div></div><div id="ftn3"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[3]</span></span></span></span></a> Entores Ltd v Miles Far East Corporation [1955] 2 QB 327</span></div></div><div id="ftn4"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span></span></span></a> Byrne v Van Tienhoven (1880) 5 CPD 344</span></div></div></div>Stamihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03594676746991523105noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5983539293288583154.post-36911944129966325042010-11-03T14:07:00.000-07:002010-11-03T14:07:33.021-07:00<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;">What are the key international regulations governing the prohibition of child labour; are they successful?</span></b></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TNHOxxYPb8I/AAAAAAAAACI/TIGK2OIGoiY/s1600/imagesdfghj.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TNHOxxYPb8I/AAAAAAAAACI/TIGK2OIGoiY/s320/imagesdfghj.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"><br />
</span></span></u></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;">According to the International Labour Organisation (ILO), child labour is putting a child in hazardous conditions in regards to physical, ethical and educational development with exploitation being the main element</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;">. Moreover, the definition also includes conditions of slavery, sexual exploitation and child involuntary conscription</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;">.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;">Under article 32 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[3]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;">, the member nations recognise the right of the child to be protected from the aforementioned conditions that constitute child labour</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;">. Moreover, the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[5]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;"> also holds authority in prohibiting child labour under article 32. In international labour law, prohibition of child labour is regulated by the ILO</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[6]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;">. Under the Convention 138</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[7]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;"> the minimum age for admission to hazardous employment is 18 years of age. </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;">There are various criticisms surrounding the area, with some of them being discussed below. There are accusations against the UN Convention</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[8]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;"> and ILO instruments</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[9]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;"> regarding their voluntary nature. This criticism originates from the fact that, only the states which agreed to ratify the UN convention are legally bound to comply with it. Moreover, ILO cannot enforce its instruments as there are not sanctions to be taken for non obliging members</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[10]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;">. Besides, only member states, employers and employee associations can bring a claim of infringement</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn11" name="_ftnref11" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[11]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;">. Finally, ILO has been deemed responsible for the fact that most member states were given the freedom to interpret the conventions in a vague</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn12" name="_ftnref12" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[12]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;"> language; thus enabling them to exercise 'creative' implementation.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;">To sum up, the system is partly successful as it has managed to lower child labour</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn13" name="_ftnref13" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[13]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;">. However, there is a long way ahead before the child labour can be fully extinguished. </span><span style="line-height: 150%;"></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div><span style="font-size: large;"><br clear="all" /></span> <br />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" /><div id="ftn1"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">'About child labour' (International Labour Organization)</span></span></div><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> <http://www.ilo.org/ipec/facts/lang--en/> accessed 31 October 2010</span></span></div></div><div id="ftn2"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[2]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Convention concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour (adopted 17 July 1999,</span> <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">entered into force 19 November 2000)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">C182 (International Labour Convention) <http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/cgi-lex/convde.pl?C182> accessed 31 October 2010</span></span></div></div><div id="ftn3"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-indent: -36pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[3]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">Convention on the Rights of the Child (adopted 20 November 1989, entered into force 2 September 1990) UNGA Res 44/25 <http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/crc.htm> accessed 31 October 2010</span></span></div></div><div id="ftn4"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> UNGA Res 44/25 (n8)</span></span></div></div><div id="ftn5"><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[5]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (as amended 364/01) <http://www.europarl.europa.eu/charter/pdf/text_en.pdf> accessed 31 October 2010</span></span></div></div><div id="ftn6"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[6]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> 'About the ILO' (International Labour Organization) <http://www.ilo.org/global/About_the_ILO/lang--en/index.htm> accessed 31 October 2010</span></span></div></div><div id="ftn7"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[7]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Convention concerning Minimum Age for Admission to Employment (adopted 26 July 1973,</span> <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">entered into force 19 July 1976)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">C138 (International Labour Convention) <http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/cgi-lex/convde.pl?C138> accessed 31 October 2010</span></span></div></div><div id="ftn8"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[8]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">UNGA Res 44/25 (n8)</span></span></div></div><div id="ftn9"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[9]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> (n15)</span></span></div></div><div id="ftn10"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[10]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">' The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)' (Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade) <http://www.dfat.gov.au/security/npt.html> accessed 31 October 2010</span></span></div></div><div id="ftn11"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref11" name="_ftn11" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[11]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Steven Simpson, 'Enforcement of Human Rights through ILO Machinery' [1995] 03-01 Human Rights Brief <http://www.wcl.american.edu/hrbrief/v3i1/ilo31.htm> accessed 31 October 2010</span></span></div></div><div id="ftn12"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref12" name="_ftn12" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[12]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Guy Standing, 'The ILO: An Agency for Globalization?' [2008] 39-03 Development and Change <http://www.unhistory.org/pdf/StandingILO.pdf> accessed 31 October 2010</span></span></div></div><div id="ftn13"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref13" name="_ftn13" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 115%;">[13]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">'Facts on Child Labour 2010' [2010] International Labour Organization; Media and Public Information <http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/wcms_126685.pdf> accessed 31 October 2010</span></span></div></div></div>Stamihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03594676746991523105noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5983539293288583154.post-44860355701762063182010-11-03T12:33:00.000-07:002010-11-03T12:33:58.000-07:00<div style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Fairtrade Presentation</span></b></div><div style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">The link to my group's presentation on Fairtrade essay 1 can be <span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">accessed </span><a href="https://docs.google.com/fileview?id=0B3t5_A5MpXwVMzljN2M4NTgtNzE4Yi00NWFlLTllOWMtYTU5Njk2ZTdhMTg2&hl=en&authkey=CNTCldQH">here</a>. </span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-GB</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> </w:Compatibility> <w:BrowserLevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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</div>Stamihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03594676746991523105noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5983539293288583154.post-56275741064841438882010-11-03T07:10:00.000-07:002010-11-03T07:11:28.707-07:00<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">Celebrity merchandise and the tort of passing off</span></b></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">Tempted by a topic of intellectual property law on the character merchandising, I was taken to write for some of the issues encompassing the area. </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
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</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TNFtTdA4yZI/AAAAAAAAACE/nlAG6xEZMlI/s1600/41F42Z55pPL._SL500_AA300_.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TNFtTdA4yZI/AAAAAAAAACE/nlAG6xEZMlI/s320/41F42Z55pPL._SL500_AA300_.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;"><br />
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">Celebrities tend to seek protection of their personality’s business value under, inter alia, the tort of passing-off.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></span></span></a> According to the tort of passing-off, “nobody has any right to represent his goods as the goods of someone else”.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">[2]</span></span></span></a> In terms of the “classical trinity”, a passing off action prevents a misrepresentation by the defendant leading to confusion (or deception) and causing damage to the goodwill acquired by the plaintiff in his goods, name, mark, etc. Apart from the above the celebrity has to prove that there is a “common field of activity” between the parties, which indicates the misrepresentation and the confusion that was created to the public. If the celebrity fails to prove such a connection then the case will collapse.<span class="MsoFootnoteReference"> <a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">[3]</span></span></a></span> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">However, in the recent case of Irvine v Talksport Ltd<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><i><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></b></span></i></span></a>, Laddie J. rejected the common field of activity requirement on the basis that it severely limited the application of the tort of passing off. Instead, the requirement for a successful case is goodwill and misrepresentative endorsement. Although this case has marked a dramatic change in the law of the United Kingdom, it only applies to endorsement cases and not merchandising cases. Therefore, celebrity merchandising still enjoys very little or no protection at all. </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">Before we can draw any conclusions, we need to understand the difference between merchandise and endorsement. Endorsement of a product is when someone tells to the public that he approves of the product and is happy to be associated with it. On the other hand, merchandising could be the sale of memorabilia. For example, a porcelain plate bearing the image of the late Diana, Princess of Wales could hardly be thought of as being endorsed by her, but the enhanced sales which may be achieved by virtue of the presence of the image is a form of merchandising.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">[5]</span></span></span></a> If that is the case should Diana have to prove a common field of activity in order to succeed in a claim against undesirable exposure? </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">I believe that the development of the law in this area seems to be problematic. In my view, instead of patching up the current laws, the legislators should create new ones which will allow celebrities to protect their name, likeness and voice, by providing them with the right to control and profit from the commercial use of one’s name, image...etc, and prevent unauthorized appropriation of the same for commercial purposes.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;">Further Reading:</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">Scanlan, G. (2003) “Personality<i>, Endorsement and everything: The Modern Law of Passing Off and the myth of the Personality Right</i>” European Intellectual Property Review, E.I.P.R. 563. </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">Bains, S. (2007) ‘<i>Personality rights: should the UK grant celebrities a proprietary right in their personality? Part 1’ </i>Entertainment Law Review, Ent. L.R. 164</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">Torremans, P. (2008) ‘<i>Intellectual Property Law’ </i>(5<sup>th</sup> Edn) Oxford: Oxford University Press</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">MacQueen, H. et al. (2008) ‘<i>Contemporary Intellectual Property’ </i>Oxford: Oxford University Press</span></span></div><div><span style="font-size: large;"><br clear="all" /></span> <br />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" /><div id="ftn1"><div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> Klink, J. (2003) ‘<i>50 years of publicity rights in the United States and the never ending hassle with intellectual property and personality rights in Europe’ </i>Intellectual Property Quarterly, I.P.Q. 363</span></span></div></div><div id="ftn2"><div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> ibid<u> </u></span></span></div></div><div id="ftn3"><div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">[3]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> Aldo De Landa Barajas. (2009) ‘<i>Personality</i><i> rights in the United States and the United Kingdom - is Vanna too much? Is Irvine not enough?</i> ‘Entertainment Law Review, Ent. L.R. 253</span></span></div></div><div id="ftn4"><div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> <i>Irvine</i> <i>v</i> <i>Talksport</i> <i>Ltd</i> <i>(Damages)</i> [2002] EWHC 539; [2003] EWCA Civ 423</span></span></div></div><div id="ftn5"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">[5]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;"> Per Laddie J in Irvine v Talksport Ltd [2002] 2 All ER 414 at 418b</span></span></div><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><br />
</div></div></div>Stamihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03594676746991523105noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5983539293288583154.post-24714354689919241172010-11-03T07:04:00.000-07:002010-11-03T07:04:52.750-07:00<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Two types of contract for the carriage of goods by sea</span></b></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br />
</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"></span></b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TNFpnPIT-zI/AAAAAAAAACA/rGtU9IpyCbA/s1600/index.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TNFpnPIT-zI/AAAAAAAAACA/rGtU9IpyCbA/s320/index.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br />
</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;">There are two types of contract used in the carriage of goods by sea; the <a href="http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-charter-party.htm">charter party contract</a> and the <a href="http://www.legalserviceindia.com/articles/billoflad.htm">bill of lading contract</a>. </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Charter party contract</span></u></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;">Charter party is a contract between the ship owner and the charterer with the intention to use the whole vessel, or part of her, for a voyage/s for a period of time. The charter parties are not bound by either the <a href="http://www.jus.uio.no/lm/sea.carriage.hague.visby.rules.1968/doc.html">Hague-Visby Rules</a> or the <a href="http://www.statutelaw.gov.uk/content.aspx?LegType=All+Primary&PageNumber=29&NavFrom=2&parentActiveTextDocId=1422929&ActiveTextDocId=1422929&filesize=24583">Carriage of Goods by Sea Act 1992</a>. Therefore, the contract depends mostly on <a href="http://www.investopedia.com/university/economics/economics3.asp">supply and demand</a> factors. The three main categories of charter party are the following: the voyage charter party (the vessel is chartered for a specific voyage), the time charter party (the vessel is chartered for a specific period of time) and the charter party by demise (the vessel is leased to the charterer). </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">Bill of lading contract</span></u></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;">Bill of lading is a contract for the carriage of goods. It is a document often used as a receipt of the shipment of the goods. It is also used as evidence to the charter party contract. Finally, a bill of lading indicates the particular vessel on which the goods have been placed, their intended destination, and the terms for transporting the shipment to its final destination. It should be noted that the bill of lading, in contradiction to the charter party contract, is bound by the Hague-Visby Rules and the Carriage of Goods by Sea Act 1992. </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
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</div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Further Reading:</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.lectlaw.com/def/c031.htm">http://www.lectlaw.com/def/c031.htm</a></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charter-party">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charter-party</a></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/107682/charter-party">http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/107682/charter-party</a></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_lading">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_lading</a></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.maritimeknowhow.com/English/Know-How/Bill_of_Lading/contract_of_carriage.htm">http://www.maritimeknowhow.com/English/Know-How/Bill_of_Lading/contract_of_carriage.htm</a></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.droit.univ-nantes.fr/labos/cdmo/centre-droit-maritime-oceanique/cdmo/neptunus/nept/nep32/32_3.pdf">http://www.droit.univ-nantes.fr/labos/cdmo/centre-droit-maritime-oceanique/cdmo/neptunus/nept/nep32/32_3.pdf</a></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.lawandsea.net/COG/1_index_COG.html">http://www.lawandsea.net/COG/1_index_COG.html</a></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;">http://www.maritimeknowhow.com/English/Know-How/Chartering/evidence_in_matters_of_affreightment/bill_of_lading_versus_charter_party.html</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span></div>Stamihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03594676746991523105noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5983539293288583154.post-21349435447838233222010-11-03T06:50:00.000-07:002010-11-03T06:51:57.076-07:00<!--[if !mso]> <style>
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="text"><b><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Letter of Credit in International sales transactions</span></b></span></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TNFm98yNhGI/AAAAAAAAAB4/22cUdtaUaiY/s1600/letter-of-credit.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TNFm98yNhGI/AAAAAAAAAB4/22cUdtaUaiY/s320/letter-of-credit.jpg" width="278" /></a></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><u><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><br />
</span></u></b><span class="text"><b><u><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"></span></u></b></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="text"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">A <a href="http://www.crfonline.org/orc/cro/cro-9-1.html">Letter of Credit </a>is the traditional worldwide risk management</span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"> <span class="text">tool for international transactions.<span> It is used in transactions between seller and buyer as a method of payment (through the bank). In such transactions, the bank is responsible to ensure that the correct amount will be paid on the correct time. In this way, both the buyer and the seller are protected. Moreover, the bank does not give the money to the seller until it receives a confirmation that the goods have been shipped. This form of payment seems to me very logical as it guarantees a secure transaction system, which is essential in international sales field. </span></span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="text"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Furthermore, this method of payment requires the buyer to choose the issuing (opening) bank and set up the letter of credit which he then sends to the seller. At this stage, the letter must be confirmed by the seller’s bank. A full diagram of this procedure can be seen below.</span></span><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TNFnI9zr_EI/AAAAAAAAAB8/gd3bEZKp7mk/s1600/imageskl%5B;p.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="298" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TNFnI9zr_EI/AAAAAAAAAB8/gd3bEZKp7mk/s320/imageskl%5B;p.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><br />
</span></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"></span></span><div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Besides, Letters of credit can be <a href="http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/revocable-letter-of-credit-L-C.html#ixzz148MmCV6K">revocable</a> or<a href="http://www.sitpro.org.uk/trade/lettcredintro.html"> irrevocable</a>. </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Revocable is the letter of credit which can be modified or cancelled at any time by the bank, which represents the buyer, without the approval of the seller. It should be noted that this can occur even when the goods are shipped. As this does not ensure the seller, whether he will be paid or when, it is rarely used. Also, some banks avoid issuing such letters from fear of being involved in any possible litigation. </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">Most banks and sellers prefer the issuing of irrevocable letters of credit which is less risky for them. Irrevocable letters cannot be amended or cancelled without the consent of the seller. Consent should be given by all affected parties (such as banks).<span> </span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><span> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;">I believe that the letter of credit is a very significant factor in international sales transactions. When considering that every country has its own laws and currency and also the fact that the distance makes it difficult for the parties to know each other, then the letters of credit are a wise solution. </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><br />
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</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 115%;"><br />
Further Reading: </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/revocable-letter-of-credit-L-C.html#ixzz148MmCV6K"><span style="color: windowtext; line-height: 115%;">http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/revocable-letter-of-credit-L-C.html#ixzz148MmCV6K</span></a><span class="text"><span style="line-height: 115%;"></span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_of_credit"><span style="color: windowtext; line-height: 115%;">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_of_credit</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.sitpro.org.uk/trade/lettcredintro.html"><span style="color: windowtext; line-height: 115%;">http://www.sitpro.org.uk/trade/lettcredintro.html</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.investopedia.com/terms/l/letterofcredit.asp"><span style="color: windowtext; line-height: 115%;">http://www.investopedia.com/terms/l/letterofcredit.asp</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.bizhelp24.com/export-import/letter-of-credit.html"><span style="color: windowtext; line-height: 115%;">http://www.bizhelp24.com/export-import/letter-of-credit.html</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.crfonline.org/orc/cro/cro-9-1.html"><span style="color: windowtext; line-height: 115%;">http://www.crfonline.org/orc/cro/cro-9-1.html</span></a><span style="line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.creditmanagementworld.com/letterofcredit/lcinternationalstart.html"><span style="color: windowtext; line-height: 115%;">http://www.creditmanagementworld.com/letterofcredit/lcinternationalstart.html</span></a></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: windowtext; line-height: 115%;"><u>http://www.loanuniverse.com/letters.html </u></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: windowtext; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="line-height: 115%;"></span></span></div>Stamihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03594676746991523105noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5983539293288583154.post-2224933017820128342010-10-31T14:06:00.000-07:002010-11-03T07:06:37.577-07:00<span style="font-size: large;"></span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;"></span><br />
<div style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-align: center; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span lang="EN-US">Watteau v Fenwick </span></b><b>[1893] 1 Q.B. 346; a case subject to vast criticism</b></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-align: center; text-indent: 36pt;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TM3ZNITGnEI/AAAAAAAAAB0/sANCsQ9Ip-g/s1600/edrtyuik.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TM3ZNITGnEI/AAAAAAAAAB0/sANCsQ9Ip-g/s320/edrtyuik.jpg" width="315" /></a></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-align: center; text-indent: 36pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US">The case of Watteau v Fenwick has been criticized because it was decided that an undisclosed principal could be held liable for an act of the agent, which had been expressly forbidden. Some claim that the case was decided upon apparent authority, yet it is doubted whether this contention is valid because the principal was not known.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference">[1]</span></span></a> An agency by ratification, which allows a known principal to ratify a contract and be bound by it, could not be inferred because Humble did not contract as an agent.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference">[2]</span></span></a><span style="color: red;"> </span>Therefore, Wills J decided that <i> </i></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span lang="EN-US"> </span></i><span lang="EN-US">“Once it has been established that the defendant was the real principal, the ordinary doctrine as to principal and agent applies – that the principal is liable for all the acts of the agent which are within the authority usually confided to an agent of that character, notwithstanding limitations, as between the principal and the agent, put upon that authority. It is said that it is only so where there has been a holding out of authority…But I do not think so. Otherwise in every case of undisclosed principal, or at least in every case where the fact of there being a principal was undisclosed, the secret limitation of authority would prevail and defeat the action of the person dealing with the agent and then discovering that he was an agent and had a principal”. </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -35.45pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black;">In my opinion, the decision was correct because a different outcome could result to </span><span lang="EN-US">undisclosed principals being able to hire insolvent agents to make contracts for them, and then allege that the contracts were unauthorized while sharing the money with the agent in secret.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US">Further Reading:</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Dobson, P. & Stokes, R. (2008) ‘<i>Commercial Law</i>’ (7<sup>th</sup> Edn) Thomson Sweet & Maxwell.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Brown, I. (2001) ‘<i>Commercial Law’ </i>Butterworths Lexis Nexis</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Bradgate, R. (2000) ‘<i>Commercial Law’</i> (3<sup>rd</sup> Edn) London: LexisNexis Butterworths.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Bradgate, R & White, F. (2005) ‘<i>Commercial Law’ </i>Oxford: Oxford University Press.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US"> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US"></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US"></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US"></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="color: black;"></span></span></span></div><div style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br clear="all" /></span> <br />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" /><div id="ftn1"><div class="Default" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black;">[1]</span></span></span></a> Goodhart and Hamson (1931) Cambridge Law Journal 320 </span></div></div><div id="ftn2"><div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference">[2]</span></span></a> Kevin M Rogers(1985 ) ‘A Case harshly treated? Watteau v Fenwick re-evaluated’ Cambridge Law <i>Journal</i> 363 found at: <u>http://www.herts.ac.uk/fms/documents/schools/law/HLJ_V2I2_Rogers.pdf </u></span></div></div></div>Stamihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03594676746991523105noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5983539293288583154.post-32559295797616104672010-10-31T11:22:00.000-07:002010-11-07T07:15:36.199-08:00<span style="font-size: large;"></span> <br />
<div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b>"Dumping" in International Trade</b></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TM2yHPwJaLI/AAAAAAAAABk/xi76SNqFgQo/s1600/images1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="212" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TM2yHPwJaLI/AAAAAAAAABk/xi76SNqFgQo/s320/images1.jpg" width="320" /></a></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><u></u></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">A very interesting topic of international trade is the ‘dumping’ of products. When I first heard of it my mind went to products being dumped in other countries. However, after research I found out that, dumping in International trade is when one country exports a significant amount of goods to another country at prices much lower than in the domestic market. In other words, they charge more in their countries than they do to export countries. This does not seem to be a fair competition. Such issues are often referred to the WTO. </span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TM2yR0fVURI/AAAAAAAAABo/vA68oeBuvoc/s1600/images.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="243" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TM2yR0fVURI/AAAAAAAAABo/vA68oeBuvoc/s320/images.jpg" width="320" /></a></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">The <a href="http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/whatis_e.htm">World Trade Organization</a> (WTO) is the only global international organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations. At its heart are the WTO agreements, negotiated and signed by the bulk of the world’s trading nations and ratified in their parliaments. They aim to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business. Moreover, the WTO agreement does not pass judgement. Its focus is on how governments can or cannot react to dumping — it disciplines anti-dumping actions, and it is often called the “Anti-dumping Agreement”. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">At the meeting of the Committee on Anti-Dumping Practices on 26-27 October 2010, 32 WTO members reported taking anti-dumping actions during the first half of the year (the European Union counting as one). A number of these actions were questioned during the meeting, and the members concerned were urged to follow WTO rules. Read more <a href="http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news10_e/anti_26oct10_e.htm">here</a>. </span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TM2yr8x-5hI/AAAAAAAAABw/RhBKuehFTTU/s1600/huhftdfg.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="222" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TM2yr8x-5hI/AAAAAAAAABw/RhBKuehFTTU/s320/huhftdfg.jpg" width="320" /></a></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">A recent case which, inter alia, concerns dumping of products is the one between USA and China. There are claims that US steel had been dumped onto the Chinese market and is subsidized. Read the full story<a href="http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=us-takes-two-china-trade-cases-to-wto-2010-09-16"> here</a>. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: large;">_______________________________________ </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: large;"> Further Reading:</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: large;">http://www.france24.com/en/20100916-us-takes-two-china-trade-cases-wto</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: large;">http://www.terradaily.com/reports/US_takes_two_China_trade_cases_to_WTO_999.html</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: large;">http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/adp_e/adp_e.htm</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: large;">http://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/ursum_e.htm#fAgreement</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div>Stamihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03594676746991523105noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5983539293288583154.post-65679086727147415802010-10-29T10:23:00.000-07:002010-10-31T11:30:10.322-07:00<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-GB</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> </w:Compatibility> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b>Right to privacy</b></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TMsC9AXx9HI/AAAAAAAAABc/zwIhU9RJiRw/s1600/privacy_pah.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TMsC9AXx9HI/AAAAAAAAABc/zwIhU9RJiRw/s200/privacy_pah.jpg" width="190" /></a></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b> </b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span>As provided by the Human Rights Act 1998, everyone has a right to privacy. Privacy can adopt many meanings. For some people privacy is to ensure that their personal belongings are not being trespassed. For other people, privacy means that their personal information (marital status, occupation, name, address, sexual orientation, medical information etc) is kept confidential. Other privacy forms include: internet privacy, non public exposure of image or video without consent etc. According to Samuel D Warrent </span>and Louis D Brandeis, privacy is the "right to be let alone".</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">As privacy is a very serious matter and the government acknowledges this, a series of laws came into force in order to protect citizens’ right to privacy. </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Some of them include: </div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span>Article 8-the right to respect for private and family life, home and correspondence</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span>Confidential information </div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span>Data Protection</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><a href="http://www.yourrights.org.uk/yourrights/privacy/spent-convictions-and-the-rehabilitation-of-offenders/index.shtml"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Revealing your convictions and your involvement with the police</span></a></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><a href="http://www.yourrights.org.uk/yourrights/privacy/surveillance-and-undercover-human-intelligence-sources/index.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Surveillance and Undercover Human Intelligent Sources</span></a></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><a href="http://www.yourrights.org.uk/yourrights/privacy/investigation-of-electronic-data-protected-by-encryption.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Investigation of Electronic Data Protected by Encryption</span></a></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><a href="http://www.yourrights.org.uk/yourrights/privacy/fingerprints-and-photos.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">Retention of fingerprings, DNA samples and photographs</span></a></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span><br />
</span></span><a href="http://www.yourrights.org.uk/yourrights/privacy/power-of-officials-to-enter-your-home/index.html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"></span></a></div><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">(For a further explanation on each of the above can be found directly from the <a href="http://www.yourrights.org.uk/yourrights/privacy/index.html">website</a> retrieved).</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">However, while legislators claim that citizens’ right to privacy is well protected under the umbrella of laws, at the same time there is evidence which suggests that our privacy is being invaded on a daily basis. Inspired from the sources provided at the end of the text, I would like to raise some everyday issues regarding our privacy and its limits. </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">It is my understanding that nowadays we can only find privacy in our house. It is my observation, that from the moment we walk from our doorstep, we are exposed to CCTV which monitors our every movement. I was reading a survey in a <a href="http://www.wordstream.com/articles/google-privacy-internet-privacy">website</a> which, inter alia, stated that UK citizens are captured by CCTV on average over 300 times a day. </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Moreover, I noticed that while walking on the street people will often go to other people and ask for their name, address, credit card details. Often these details are given to private companies who use them for their own purposes. Lately, I was reading on the newspapers that some companies were found to share people’s private information with other private organisations. If someone starts a research for privacy, he will find out that some organisations aim to gain easy access on our personal details. Many ways are used in order to succeed this. Some of them are mentioned above and other cannot be mentioned in this short text. Therefore, I conclude that for some our private information is valuable. </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Internet is the best place for these organisations to retrieve all the information they need. Some argue that the internet access of every citizen is monitored. Big internet companies make sure our information is invaded. Many people are fighting to protect their personal details while other people provide an easy access to their. <span>As regards to the latter, Jeffrey Rosen said in <a href="http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-383709537384528624#">one of his videos</a> that people often do not want to share their personal information with their families, friends, colleagues etc. However, they create online profiles in social networks and expose their everyday life in them. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span>What I suggest is that laws do not seem to fully protect someone’s right to privacy. I believe that our privacy should be the focus for the next relevant legislation that will come into force. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span>____________________________________ </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Further reading: </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2009/mar/23/dna-database-idcards-children-index">http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2009/mar/23/dna-database-idcards-children-index</a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><a href="http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/specials/article2725557.ece">http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/specials/article2725557.ece</a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/internet-privacy-britain-in-the-dock-1668844.html">http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/internet-privacy-britain-in-the-dock-1668844.html</a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><a href="http://www.wordstream.com/articles/google-privacy-internet-privacy">http://www.wordstream.com/articles/google-privacy-internet-privacy</a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><a href="http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/specials/article2725557.ece">http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/specials/article2725557.ece</a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><a href="http://fora.tv/2007/10/27/Battle_of_Ideas_Privacy_is_Dead__Long_Live_Privacy#Jeffrey_Rosen_Is_Privacy_Dead">http://fora.tv/2007/10/27/Battle_of_Ideas_Privacy_is_Dead__Long_Live_Privacy#Jeffrey_Rosen_Is_Privacy_Dead</a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><a href="http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-383709537384528624">http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-383709537384528624#</a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X1bqmS1sJ3c">http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X1bqmS1sJ3c</a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/internet-privacy-britain-in-the-dock-1668844.html">http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/internet-privacy-britain-in-the-dock-1668844.html</a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><br />
</div>Stamihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03594676746991523105noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5983539293288583154.post-68125200822554211982010-10-25T07:09:00.000-07:002010-10-31T05:53:22.857-07:00<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">Is fairtrade fair?</span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><u><span style="line-height: 115%;"><br />
</span></u></b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TMWJX_PaM2I/AAAAAAAAABY/DKoSxVbhC8w/s1600/fairtrade5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="195" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_gxrsAlXMHL4/TMWJX_PaM2I/AAAAAAAAABY/DKoSxVbhC8w/s200/fairtrade5.jpg" width="200" /></a></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large; line-height: 150%;">There are approximately 20 initiatives, who claim that their objective is to support ‘a trading partnership, based on dialogue, transparency and respect, that seeks greater equity in international trade. It contributes to sustainable development by offering better trading conditions to, and securing the rights of, marginalized producers and workers’.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></span></span></a> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large; line-height: 150%;">Four of the main initiatives are the World Fair Trade Organization (WFTO)<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[2]</span></span></span></a>, the Fairtrade Labelling Organisations Internationally (FLO)<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[3]</span></span></span></a>, the Network of European Worldshops (NEW)<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span></span></a> and the European Fair Trade Association (EFTA)<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[5]</span></span></span></a>. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large; line-height: 150%;">The concept of fair-trade seemed to be an effective response to the problems faced by farmers and workers. However, this approach has generated various criticisms. Some claim that FLO rules promote part time working instead of full time. In other words, that the farmers are getting cheaper labour while the workers are getting no access to benefits (normally given to full time workers).<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[6]</span></span></span></a> Moreover, there are allegations which refer to ignorance regarding the fair-trade premium from the part of producers and workers.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[7]</span></span></span></a> There is evidence that premium does not reach farmers and workers as it should.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[8]</span></span></span></a> What is more, fair-trade initiatives have been accused of not promoting technological development.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[9]</span></span></span></a> Meanwhile, Flo refuses accusations by stating that they comply with ISO 65 requirements<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[10]</span></span></span></a> and also that they are educating producers of their rights<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftn11" name="_ftnref11" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[11]</span></span></span></a>. In the meantime, some farmers in China instead of taking their premium (i.e. a percentage of the product’s price being given back to the producer to be used for education, healthcare, community development) they received thermos, laundry baskets and cylinders.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftn12" name="_ftnref12" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[12]</span></span></span></a> Furthermore, some critics support the view that fair-trade is trying to create ‘guilty conscience’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftn13" name="_ftnref13" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[13]</span></span></span></a> to consumers in order to create ‘moral monopoly’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftn14" name="_ftnref14" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[14]</span></span></span></a>. Quality issues are also at stake with Hal Weitzman suggesting that insiders report that non certified coffee is reaching consumers as fair-trade.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftn15" name="_ftnref15" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[15]</span></span></span></a> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large; line-height: 150%;">It is concluded, that fair-trade is a very good concept which lacks in its practical application. Hopefully, these insufficiencies are reversible and the organisations will improve them in years to come. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><hr size="1" style="margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px;" width="33%" /><div id="ftn1" style="text-align: justify;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></span></span></a> </span><span style="font-size: large; line-height: 115%;">World Fair Trade Organisation, ‘What is fair-trade?’ <</span><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.wfto.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1&Itemid=13">http://www.wfto.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1&Itemid=13</a></span><span style="font-size: large; line-height: 115%;">> accessed 16 October 2010</span></div></div><div id="ftn2" style="text-align: justify;"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[2]</span></span></span></a> World Fair Trade Organisation, <<a href="http://www.wfto.com/">http://www.wfto.com</a> > accessed 16 October 2010</span></div></div><div id="ftn3" style="text-align: justify;"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[3]</span></span></span></a> Labelling Organisations Internationally , < http://www.fairtrade.net/ > accessed 16 October 2010</span></div></div><div id="ftn4" style="text-align: justify;"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span></span></a>Network of European Worldshops, <<a href="http://www.crossing-borders-fair-trade.com/network-of-european-worldshops.html">http://www.crossing-borders-fair-trade.com/network-of-european-worldshops.html</a>> accessed 24 October 2010</span></div></div><div id="ftn5" style="text-align: justify;"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[5]</span></span></span></a> European Fair Trade Association, < http://www.european-fair-trade-association.org/efta/ > accessed 24 October 2010</span></div></div><div id="ftn6" style="text-align: justify;"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[6]</span></span></span></a> D Henderson, ‘Fair Trade is Counterproductive and Unfair’ (2008) Economic Affairs 62-64 ,cited in A M Smith, <u>Evaluating the criticisms of fair trade</u>, Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2009, p.30</span></div><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;">< <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-0270.2009.01944.x/pdf">http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-0270.2009.01944.x/pdf</a>> accessed 16 October 2010</span></div></div><div id="ftn7" style="text-align: justify;"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[7]</span></span></span></a> P Bahra, ‘Tea workers still waiting to reap Fairtrade benefits; Premium paid for ethical goods may not be passed on, reports Parminder Bahra’ [2009] London Times <a href="http://www.lexisnexis.com/uk/nexis/docview/getDocForCuiReq?lni=4V8W-X8W0-TX5B-909P&csi=10939&oc=00240&perma=true">http://www.lexisnexis.com/uk/nexis/docview/getDocForCuiReq?lni=4V8W-X8W0-TX5B-909P&csi=10939&oc=00240&perma=true</a> accessed 17 October 2010</span></div></div><div id="ftn8" style="text-align: justify;"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[8]</span></span></span></a> ‘Voting with your trolley’, Economist 7/12/06, cited in M Sidwell, <u>Unfair Trade,</u> London: Adam Smith Institute, 2008 <<a href="http://www.adamsmith.org/blog/international/unfair-trade/">http://www.adamsmith.org/blog/international/unfair-trade/</a>> accessed 18 October 2010</span></div></div><div id="ftn9" style="text-align: justify;"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[9]</span></span></span></a> M Sidwell, <i>Unfair Trade</i> (Adam Smith Institute, London 2008) <<a href="http://www.adamsmith.org/blog/international/unfair-trade/">http://www.adamsmith.org/blog/international/unfair-trade/</a>> accessed 18 October 2010; B O’Neill, ‘How fair is Fairtrade?’ <<a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6426417.stm">http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6426417.stm</a>> accessed 17 October 2010 </span></div></div><div id="ftn10" style="text-align: justify;"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[10]</span></span></span></a> Flo-Cert, ‘ISO<b> </b>65 Accreditation’ <<a href="http://www.flo-cert.net/flo-cert/main.php?lg=en">http://www.flo-cert.net/flo-cert/main.php?lg=en</a> > accessed 19 October 2010</span></div></div><div id="ftn11" style="text-align: justify;"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftnref11" name="_ftn11" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[11]</span></span></span></a> N 7 </span></div></div><div id="ftn12" style="text-align: justify;"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftnref12" name="_ftn12" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[12]</span></span></span></a> ibid</span></div></div><div id="ftn13" style="text-align: justify;"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftnref13" name="_ftn13" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[13]</span></span></span></a> Fairtrade Foundation, ‘British sense of fair play helps workers in the developing world’ </span></div><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><<a href="http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/press_office/press_releases_and_statements/may_2010/millions_of_uk_consumers_punish_businesses_who_dont_treat_workers_fairly.aspx">http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/press_office/press_releases_and_statements/may_2010/millions_of_uk_consumers_punish_businesses_who_dont_treat_workers_fairly.aspx</a>> accessed 17 October</span></div></div><div id="ftn14" style="text-align: justify;"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftnref14" name="_ftn14" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[14]</span></span></span></a> K Deconinck, ‘Free marketeers attack Fairtrade principle’ (London 16 March 2004) < <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/3542517.stm">http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/3542517.stm</a>> accessed 16 October</span></div></div><div id="ftn15" style="text-align: justify;"><div class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=5983539293288583154&pli=1#_ftnref15" name="_ftn15" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">[15]</span></span></span></a> Fair Deal Trading, ‘About us’ < <a href="http://www.fairdealtrading.com/about.htm">http://www.fairdealtrading.com/about.htm</a> > accessed 16 October 2010</span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div>Stamihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03594676746991523105noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5983539293288583154.post-23203479812849041732010-10-24T13:41:00.000-07:002010-10-31T05:54:50.890-07:00Citizens and their rights; the demystification of laws<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;">Introduction</span></u></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;"><br />
</span></u></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large; line-height: 150%;">I was surfing the internet when I found an interesting <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NZ2EgbWGRCc&NR=1">footage</a><b>. </b>It was about a photographer who was holding a professional camera and was taking pictures of the House of Parliament; which is said to be a tourist spot. It was then when a police officer turned up and asked the photographer what he was doing there, in the course of a stop & account. The police officer alleged the section 44 of the Terrorism Act 2000 in order to carry out the questioning. The photographer’s ignorance of his rights, led to his personal details being recorded by the police officer. What was upsetting for the photographer was the fact that his information will be kept in the police data for a period of time (usually no more that a year). According to police this is for the citizen’s protection as well as the police officer’s. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large; line-height: 150%;">By viewing this footage, I was impressed by the fact that most citizens are aware of their obligations but have no idea of their rights. I would say that most citizens ignore the laws governing their every day life. Besides, one can say that police officers are misunderstood in the eyes of citizens. Having said that, people seem to be afraid of police<b> </b>while in my opinion the purpose of police’ existence is to make sure that the law is conducted in a proper way and also protect the citizens’ rights. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large; line-height: 150%;">Inspired from this footage I intent to discuss some of the rights and obligations of citizens. It is essential to explain that the rights and obligations of citizens are covered by a wide range of legislation, which is impossible to be mentioned in this passage. For that reason I will stick to the laws which surround the footage in question. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large; line-height: 150%;">Before I continue, I will provide some explanations. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;">The Role of the Police in Society</span></u></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;"><br />
</span></u></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large; line-height: 150%;">In 1829 <a href="http://www.historyhome.co.uk/people/mayne.htm">Sir Richard Mayne</a> wrote: "The primary object of an efficient police is the prevention of crime: the next that of detection and punishment of offenders if crime is committed. To these ends all the efforts of police must be directed. The protection of life and property, the preservation of public tranquillity, and the absence of crime, will alone prove whether those efforts have been successful and whether the objects for which the police were appointed have been attained." </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large; line-height: 150%;">Therefore, it is my understanding that Police’ primary role is to prevent crimes, hence protecting citizens from possible dangers. In addition, Police’ another function is to protect the citizens as well as their property. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large; line-height: 150%;">However, it is admissible that in order for police to succeed in its aims, the cooperation of the public is substantial; by this I do not mean that citizens have to be afraid of police or that police should have excessive control over people. Furthermore, the state has equipped police with a number of legislations in order to deal with the everyday matters. In my opinion, legislation can also be seen as a balance between the rights of both police and the public. Therefore, this balance protects the citizen’s rights while at the same time police take its steps to prevent crimes. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;">Rights and obligations of citizens</span></u></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;"><br />
</span></u></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large; line-height: 150%;">The rights and obligations of citizens are defined by legislations. As a general rule, citizens have to act in accordance to legislations in order to avoid breaking the law. However, as long as citizens do not break the law, they are free to do as they wish, without the interference of the state or its authorities (i.e. police). Hence, it is essential for people to know when their obligations end and when their rights start; and the opposite.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large; line-height: 150%;">To begin with, citizens should know that police can ask questions but the general public are not necessarily required to answer them. The case of <a href="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:V69qndp9iS8J:www.a-level-law.com/caselibrary/RICE%2520v%2520CONNOLLY%2520%281966%29%25202%2520AER%2520649%2520-%2520CA.doc+Rice+v+Connelly+[1966]&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=uk&client=firefox-a">Rice v Connelly [1966]</a> supports this rule. Therefore, it is clear now that the photographer had no obligation at all to provide the police officer with an answer, regarding what he was doing. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large; line-height: 150%;">Moreover, police can act with the authority given to them by Section 44 of <a href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2000/11/contents/enacted">Terrorism Act 2000</a>; which allows the police to stop and search anyone they want, without the need for suspicion, in a designated area. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large; line-height: 150%;">However, <a href="http://www.btp.police.uk/about_us/chief_constable/chief_officers.aspx#andytrotter">Chief Constable Andy Trotter</a>, says that "Everyone... has a right to take photographs and film in public places. Taking photographs... is not normally cause for suspicion and there are no powers prohibiting the taking of photographs, film or digital images in a public place." Therefore, as taking pictures in a public place is not a crime, a photographer cannot be regarded to be a terrorist. He added that, "Photographers should be left alone to get on with what they are doing. If an officer is suspicious of them for some reason they can just go up to them and have a chat with them – use old-fashioned policing skills to be frank – rather than using these powers, which we don't want to over-use at all." (Full text can be accessed from <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/police-uturn-on-photographers-and-antiterror-laws-1834626.html">here</a>).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="font-null" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">At this point I find it necessary to add that a similar case was taken to the European Court of Human Rights where section 44 of the Terrorism Act 2000 was ruled to be illegal. (See the full story <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8453878.stm">here</a>).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large; line-height: 150%;">I am very curious to see whether any reforms will follow after this ruling. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large; line-height: 150%;">At this stage, I would like to refer to the differences between a stop and search under Terrorism Act and <a href="http://www.statutelaw.gov.uk/legResults.aspx?LegType=All+Legislation&searchEnacted=0&extentMatchOnly=0&confersPower=0&blanketAmendment=0&sortAlpha=0&PageNumber=0&NavFrom=0&activeTextDocId=1871554">Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 </a>(PACE). </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large; line-height: 150%;">Section 1 of PACE provides that Police can stop and search any person for stolen or prohibited articles. However, there is a restriction to this as Section 1(3) clearly states that police must have reasonable grounds for suspecting that they will find stolen or prohibited articles, in order to conduct such a search.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large; line-height: 150%;">Meanwhile, reasonable grounds cannot be personal factors such as race, sex or previous convictions (Code of Practice A 2.2-2.11). Reasonable grounds should be objective factors which are explicable to a third party (case which supports this: <a href="http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199697/ldjudgmt/jd961214/ohara01.htm">O’Hara v CC RUC</a>) and may include things like, suspects behaviour coupled with accurate and current intelligence or information (Code of Practice A 2.9). Therefore, it is clear that police did not have any reasonable grounds in order to justify a stop and search to a photographer. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;">Conclusion</span></u></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%;"> </span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large; line-height: 150%;">To sum up, I believe that section 44 of Terrorism Act 2000 needs reform as it violates fundamental human rights. In my opinion, a possible reform could be to restrict the power of police to stop and search tactlessly by adding the requirement of reasonable grounds. In this way, the Act will be in compliance to the Human Rights and also will help to avoid incidents like the one I mentioned earlier. In my view, PACE harmonizes the protection of citizen’s rights with the police efforts to maintain the order. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large; line-height: 150%;">Please note that the above discussion is only an observation from my perspective. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">P.s You can also see a similar footage <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iAY3nqv_JKE&feature=fvw">here</a>. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large; line-height: 150%;">Stamatia Kondyli<br />
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</span></div>Stamihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03594676746991523105noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5983539293288583154.post-20830008112905875602010-10-16T07:53:00.001-07:002010-10-31T14:09:31.622-07:00A welcome post!<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">This blog will focus on International Trade law as well as on General law matters. From time to time I will critically discuss on various interesting topics. Hopefully you will find my blog’s content useful. Please do not hesitate to comment and share your opinions with me. Contrary, I would appreciate your </span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;">participation</span><span style="font-size: large;"> to my attempt.</span><br />
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</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Stamatia Kondyli</span></div>Stamihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03594676746991523105noreply@blogger.com0